The Glory of Rome

Updated Sunday 15 May, 2011 12:18 PM

The Glory of Rome

This timeline diverges from ours in the winter of the year 47 BC. At that time, Julius Caesar, dictator of Rome, was fighting King Ptolemy XIII of Egypt. While in battle, Caesar's forces set fire to Ptolemy's fleet, anchored in the harbor of Alexandria. The fire soon spread to the Museum of Alexandria and a dockside warehouse full of scrolls ready for export. The Museum of Alexandria was actually more of a University and survived the fire fairly intact, except for the loss of its well known Library (which is more well known than the Museum now). If the wind was blowing in a different direction that day, the Library might very well have been saved.

The effects of this divergence might not be readily apparent and history would march on almost virtually identical to ours. After all, there is some dispute over whether or not the Library was actually destroyed at this time. So, it is safe to say that, for the most part, there would be no change to history for some time. Julius Caesar is still murdered on the Ides of March, 44 BC. The Civil Wars still continue until Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus defeats Marcus Antonius at the Battle of Actium and becomes the first Roman Emperor and assumes the name Augustus. His early reign proceeds as it did in our time, until the year 4 BC.

In 4 BC, the Legate of Syria was one Publius Quinctillius Varus, who was finishing up his administration there. Varus was related to Augustus by marriage and was a good friend of the Emperor. In our history, he would go on to command the legions in Germania, get ambushed by a Germanian warlord named Armenius, thus ruining any hope of Roman expansion into the area. However, in this timeline, he decides to take a trip to Egypt and check out the marvelous Library before returning to Rome. While in Egypt, he takes a tour of the Nile and drowns. This event, though less remarkable than the saving of the Library, is ultimately more momentous.

With Varus out of the picture, in AD 6, Augustus will appoint Tiberius Claudius Nero, currently next in line to become Emperor, to pacify Germania Magna. Tiberius' nephew and adopted son Germanicus Julius Caesar, who happens to be next in line after Tiberius to become Emperor. While in Germania, they are also charged with the task of conquering the Marcomanni tribe residing in Bohemia. Though there were some difficulties, such as when the supposedly pacified tribes rose up while the bulk of the Roman forces were fighting the Marcomannni, by the time Augustus dies in AD 14, the area is largely secured and a string of forts line the Albis (Elbe) river. Germania Magna would now be organized into the provinces of Marcomania to the south and Cheruscia to the north. Germanicus is left behind to crush the Quadi, a tribe allied to the Marcomanni, while Tiberius returns to Rome to become Emperor.

Tiberius Claudius Nero ruled the Empire from AD 14 to AD 24, when he died of illness. His reign was most notable for the campaigns against the Quadi (conducted by Germanicus) and a major revolt in Achaea (Greece) and Macedonia.

The campaign was a resounding success, resulting in the expansion of the Roman Empire to the Viadrus (Oder) river. Germanicus proved himself as a very capable and shrewd commander in the fall of AD 22. Several conquered tribes (most notably, the Suebi, Semnones, Chauci, and Boii), as well as some as yet unconquered tribes (such as the Teutones and Carpi) assaulted the main Roman force, at the small outpost of Verbonia, near the mouth of the Viadrus. The Legions only had the support of one tribe, ironically the Quadi, which they had been sent to conquer in the first place (one account states that Germanicus himself was saved in battle by the heroic efforts of one young Quadi warrior). Though the numbers and terrain were against him, Germanicus developed a clever strategy. He ordered his forces to not attack the Suebi or Chauci forces. As the battle wore on, the other tribes noticed this and grew suspicious. A few well placed spies later, and the coalition crumbled into attacking each other, making for an easy Roman victory. In fact, reports say that there were more coalition casualties from attacking each other than there were from the Romans.

Upon their surrender, all of the opposing tribes were essentially deported to the far reaches of the empire as slaves. The Quadi, meanwhile, were rewarded for their loyalty and many Quadi chieftains soon found themselves in important positions in the new province of Quadia (the southern region of the newly conquered territory). To their north would be Langobardia. Though the Langobardi were actually a tribe native to the west side of the Albis, many of them had joined the Legions in the Quadi campaign (though their absence during the battle of Verbonia is suspicious) and were now living in the area. Further to the north would soon be the client kingdom of the Angli (Denmark), Regnum Anglae. Though this region was still unconquered, Germanicus was preparing a punitive campaign against the Teutones and their Cimbri allies. This campaign would be largely complete by the time he was recalled to Rome in AD 24, mainly due to the fact that the bulk of the Teutones' forces had been destroyed at Verbonia and the assistance of the very compliant Angli tribe. Still, the region would not be completely pacified for a few more years.

Meanwhile, to the south, there were problems in Greece. The governor of Achaea, Tiberius Julius Magnus, was not very liked by the people. The main reason was that the taxes he imposed on the people were too high, though he had some personal traits that weren't very admirable either (one -almost certainly exaggerated- account states that he raped a hundred upper-class young ladies). Whatever the exact causes were, Julius Magnus soon found himself murdered by a mob in AD 19. Soon, all of Achaea, as well as much of Macedonia were in revolt. The revolt lasted for 4 years, finally being crushed in December of AD 22 when Thessalonica, the last rebel holdout, fell. The entire population was supposedly enslaved and replaced with people from Italia, though this is probably an exaggeration. Still, the city did become an enclave of Latin-speakers for awhile, in an almost universally Greek-speaking region. The revolt also kept any Legions in the area from assisting Germanicus at Verbonia. Other than that, the major significance of the revolt is that the Kingdom of Dacia to the north had supported the rebels. This would soon prove fatal for the Dacians.

However, before anything could be done, Tiberius died and Germanicus returned to Rome to become the third Emperor. Tiberius' reign was most noted for the actions of others (Germanicus of Julius Magnus), though he was a fairly competent ruler. However, he had the unfortunate fate to be emperor right after Augustus, arguable the greatest Rome ever saw. Had Tiberius ruled during later years, when the Empire was collapsing, he might have been more appreciated. As it was, he was regarded as an average, almost mediocre ruler. He left the Empire in the capable hands of Germanicus, who soon began plans to invade impetuous (and relatively wealthy) Kingdom of Dacia.

Germanicus Julius Caesar ruled from AD 22 until AD 51. His reign would see the conquest of Dacia and the restoration of the Kingdom of Judea. He spent most of his reign outside of Rome, usually campaigning, often accompanied by his eldest son, Drusus Julius Caesar, leaving the day to day affairs in the city to his younger brother, Claudius Nero Germanicus, and his son, Nero Julius Caesar.

The Dacian campaign began in the year AD 24 as Germanicus led his legions over the Danube river into Dacia. Supporting him was an army of Quadi auxiliaries and Carpi allies. Allied with Dacians were Metatiastae, Costoboci, and the Roxolani. The Quadi and Carpi mainly faced the Metatiastae and the Costoboci, while the Romans fought the Dacians and Roxolani. The Dacians surrendered in the year 29, and the main Roman force went to assist their allies, while the remainder continued to fight the Roxolani. The barbarians manage to hold down the main force long enough for the Dacians to rise up and attack the smaller Roman army left behind against the Roxolani, and wipe them out. The situation seemed dire, but the Costoboci and Metatiastae were nearly defeated by this point, and they don't hold out much longer. By the time the Dacians and Roxolani reach them, the Romans, Quadi and Carpi are ready and waiting. The campaign again turns in favor of the Romans and the Dacians again surrender in 34, and the Roxolani in 37. The newly conquered territory is divided into the provinces of Dacia Superior and Inferior in the southern central region, Roxolania in the northeast, and Costobocia in the north-northwestern area, as well as the formalization of the Carpi lands into a client state (Regnum Carpae), which would later be formally annexed into the empire as the province of Carpia. Germanicus spends the next two years fortifying the new border along the Tyras (Dniester) river before returning to Rome. Germanicus would leave Rome in AD 41, to conduct of tour of the border provinces of the empire, starting in Anglia and ending in Syria in AD 48.

While Germanicus was away, Claudius was responsible for most of the administrative details of the empire. Nero died in 30, due to excessive drinking (he died much the same way as did Attila the Hun). A close friend of Claudius and Germanicus was Herod Agrippa, a member of the royal family of Judea, a former ally of Rome that had been absorbed into the Empire. Herod's lifelong ambition was the independence of Judea, with him as King. His loyalty and amiable relations with the Imperial family would prove to be the means to this end. in AD 34, by Imperial decree, the Kingdom of Judea would be restored as a client state of Rome, though this new kingdom didn't actually include the region of Judea. The usurper Herod Antipas would try to claim the throne in AD 39, though he ultimately failed. Agrippa sent him as a prisoner to Rome, where Germanicus, back from Dacia, exiles him to Macromania. To shore up the Kingdom, Germanicus added Peraea and Galilee, and later, in the year 48, added Judea and Samaria. This restored the totality of the Kingdom of Judea and created a staunchly allied client state out of what had been a troublesome and rebellious province.

Germanicus went down in history as one of Rome greatest military leaders, and a competent administrator, though the latter was mainly due to the actions of his brother, Claudius. His military exploits were on par with Julius Caesar himself, and Germanicus actually conquered more new territory for Rome than Caesar did. Germanicus left the empire to his son, Drusus Julius Caesar, whose reign would be cut tragically short.

Drusus Julius Caesar ruled Rome from late AD 51 to early AD 54. During his principate, King Herod would die, an agricultural revolution would be born in Cheruscia, and the Vandali would launch a major raid into Langobardia.

King Herod Agrippa died in AD 53. He saw to the restoration of the Kingdom and was loved by his people for it. His line would rule Judea for nearly 300 years, producing many good kings. Herod also persecuted the Christians in Judea with much vigor, as did many of his successors (often Christians were more persecuted by the Jews than they were by the Romans).

During AD 53, an Alexandrian by the name of Heron (or Hero) visited a friend in Cheruscia [just to note, nobody is sure when Heron actually lived. I've seen reports ranging from various times in the first century BC, to the second century AD. This timeframe is the most likely though]. Heron had recently invented the aeolipile, a primitive steam engine, and an overshot waterwheel (there is evidence that they existed previously, but Heron showed that overshot waterwheels were the most efficient). He also hoped to one day apply the aeolipile to the same use as a waterwheel, though he never did create a practical design (but filled the Library of Alexandria with various ingenious but flawed ideas and designs). Heron had been corresponding with his friend for some time and decided to visit him at his large villa. While there, Heron hears of his friend's troubles, which Heron, being the inventor he is, does his best to address them. Heron improves on the crop rotation method, has some waterwheels built on the villa, and invented the moldboard plow, to effectively work the soil. The failing villa becomes more and more productive, and within a few years, it is the most productive in the region. Slowly, other villas begin to adopt the methods and, by the year 100, populations in Europe are expanding rapidly.

Also during this time, the Vandali had been raiding the border provinces, which finally prompted action on the part of Drusus. Though the raiders are defeated and sent running back beyond the Viadrus, Drusus is hit in the left eye by a stray arrow and dies in battle, snuffing out his plans to invade the Vandali.

Drusus' reign was fairly uneventful until the end, so it is difficult to judge what his ability. The principate would pass to his uncle, Claudius, who proved to be a surprisingly apt ruler.

Claudius Nero Germanicus reigned from AD 54 to AD 65. While he ruled Rome, the Vandali were conquered and work was begun of the Claudian Amphitheater. Claudius also made several reforms to the government and enfranchised many provincials.

Claudius' decision to campaign against the Vandali is intriguing. On the one hand, he felt that Rome had expanded enough along that border and that his time would be better spent focusing on administrative details, or at least conquering Britannia, which he saw as more valuable. On the other hand, the Vandals did just kill the emperor, and many cried for revenge, plus the Vistula river would make a better border, as its source was close to that of the Tyras, providing an almost complete natural border. Claudius eventually did decide to attack, and in the year AD 55, the campaign had begun. The Romans only had the Carpi to the south as allies, while the Vandali had rallied the Lugii, Burgundiones, Lemovii, and Rugii to their cause. Just beyond the Vistula, the Gothones and Sciri had pledged not to interfere, but that was the extent of Roman support in the region. The early campaign focused mainly Lugii and the Burgundiones, to divide the Vandali from their allies, while the Carpi kept the Vandali from threatening the Roman thrust. This phase was finished by AD 57, at which point the Romans focused on the Rugii (defeated by 58), leaving the Lemovii completely surrounded by Romans. They held out until AD 60, and the Vandali were defeated later that year. Though the campaign was relatively quick (5 years compared to the Dacian campaign's 13), it was one of the bloodier wars fought by Rome against the barbarians (about 30% more casualties than the Dacian campaign), which is surprising when one considers how relatively lightly populated the area was. Because of this (and due to a nasty winter that Claudius experience while he was touring the forces), Claudius decreed that Rome should expand no further in this direction. The Legions agreed holeheartedly. The conquered territory was divided up into the provinces of Lemovia (in the north), Burgundia (in the center), and Vandalia (in the south).

Work was begun on the Claudian Amphitheater when Claudius returned from the campaign shortly in AD 58. It would not be completed until AD 72, and was the largest amphitheater in the Empire, capable of holding 80,000 spectators (compared to the 55,000 person capacity of OTL's Flavian Amphitheater).

While Empreor, Claudius reformed much of the empire, centralizing it while simultaneously increasing the standing of the provinces, by appointing several provincials to the senate, as well as granting citizenship to many loyal and romanized provincials. He also converted several client kingdoms into provinces, including Mauretania, Lycia, Noricum, Tracia, Carpia, and Anglia.

Claudius would eventualy die of old age in AD 65 (at 75 years old) and leave the empire to his son Tiberius Claudius Vandalius, named in honor of his father's conquests (OTL's Britannicus). Claudius would be remembered well by the provinces and lower classes, but not very well by the Senate and aristocracy.

Tiberius Claudius Vandalius ruled from AD 65 to AD 79. His reign would see the completion of the Claudian Amphitheater, the conquest of Britannia, and the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius.

Vandalius decided in AD 67 to conquer Britannia. A few fabricated tales of piracy and he was off to secure the region for the Roman Empire. With the support of the local Trinobantes, the legions conquered the coastal tribes of the Centii, Belgae, and Duranonii by AD 69. The Iceni fell in early 71 and the Silvres were conquered in 72. The only remaining opposition in the region were the Ordovices and Brigantes, who stood together under the leadership of the charismatic leader, Ariovistix. He proved to be a formidable opponent and it took the Romans until 75 to conquer the Ordovices. The Brigantes (who now included many of the Ordovices among their number) still stood defiantly and the Romans, decided to offer Ariovistix a peace treaty. He accepted, which ensured his people's independence for the time being. The conquered territory was organized into the province of Britannia and Vandalius returned to Rome a hero.

Upon his return, the Senate awarded him the title Brittanicus, which he also insisted be bestowed upon the general who was actually responsible for most of the success, Marcus Flavius Verus. Vandalius also adopts Verus as his son and heir, making him Tiberius Claudius Vandalius Flavianus Britannicus. Vandalius did this because he had no heirs of his own. He had only two children, one boy (who died a few years before), and a daughter (who he married to Britannicus to further cement the relation). Many historians have theorized that Vandalius was a homosexual, which would help to explain why he and his wife, Valeria Quinta, did not spend much time together (and why Vandalius had no objections to Valeria's frequent affairs).

The rest of Vandalius' reign would be mundane, until the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in AD 79, which buried the towns of Pompeii and Herculanium. Vandalius happened to be visting the area at the time and helped to organize the evacuation of Pompeii (though the Praetorian guard wanted to leave the area, for his safety and, of course, their own). Sadly, Vandalius would die within the week, almost certainly due to the eruption.

Vandalius was yet another Emperor who earned his fame by conquering new territory and, except for his dramatic death, does not stand out much. He was the last Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, though some consider Brittanicus and his son to be the last members, as he married into the family (though the son was actually born to a previous wife). Still, Vandalius was the last blood relative of Caesar and Augustus to rule the empire, and he ruled well enough.

Tiberius Claudius Vandalius Flavianus Britannicus was Emperor from AD 79 to AD 96. During his principate, the Brigantes would be defeated and Caledonia (Scotland) and Hibernia (Ireland) would be conquered.

In AD 81, Britannicus made an alliance with the Caledonii, a tribe which had been attacked frequently by the Brigantes and was on the verge of collapse. Britannicus, along with his son, Manius Flavius Verus, then campaigned against the Brigantes. Though the Brigantes put up a tough fight, they could not withstand the combined offensive and were crushed in AD 85. Ariovistix was sent back to Rome as a captive, and his people's territory was split up between the Roman province of Britannia and the Regnum Caledonae (Kingdom of Caledonia), the new client kingdom form there.

Britannicus then established a few forts along the coast of Britannia and on the Hibernian coast, to defend against the Hibernian Brigantes, who held a grudge against the Romans for the conquest of their Britannic brethren. Britannicus then returned to Rome, leaving the Legions in Britannia under the command of his son. Verus, eager for glory of his own, decided to conquer Hibernia. He campaigned against the Brigantes and their allies, the Eblani, Hibernii, and Robogdii, in AD 90, claiming that they had raided one of the coastal forts. By AD 95, the entire island was under Roman control as the new province of Hibernia. For this, Verus was given the title Hibernicus.

In that same year, Britannicus died. His reign was almost totally marked by military matters. The Principate would then pass on to his son who was still in Hibernia.

Manius Flavius Verus Hibernicus ruled Rome from AD 96 to AD 98. Nothing particularly interesting happened during his reign, though Hibernicus himself is an interesting character.

Hibernicus devoted most of his reign to pleasure, leaving major administrative details unattended. He squandered much of the large surplus left by previous emperors, most of it spent on the large and lavish estate he built for himself in Rome (the palace would be torn down after his death and the grounds would be opened to the public as a large park/zoo). He also picked up the bizarre habit of wearing pants (perceived as feminine or barbaric clothing in ancient Rome) while living in the north, and he even once forced the entire Senate to wear pants for a session. He also humiliated the Senate by proclaiming his wife, Justina, consul (though she actually did a good job in that capacity, especially in contrast to her hedonistic husband).

Eventually, he alienated the Senate enough that they murdered him in late February of AD 98. Upon the assassination, the Senate briefly considered restoring the republic, but the praetorian guard was opposed to such an idea. Therefore, they proclaimed a popular Senator, Decimus Viridius Aurelius, as Emperor.

Hibernicus went down in history as a lazy hedonist, though he was an apt military commander. Perhaps if he had actually put his military talents to use during his principate, he would have been remembered in a better light. As it was, he has the dubious distinction of being the first Roman Emperor to be assassinated.

Decimus Viridius Aurelius reigned as Emperor of Rome from AD 98 to AD 115. His reign would be mostly uneventful, except for the reception of a envoy from the Han Empire of Serica (China), Gan Ying.

We must now take a brief interlude to examine events to the east. From AD 80 to AD 97, the Han General Ban Chao had campaigned along the silk road, so that the nations lying on it would be under the control of the Han. The campaign culminated with a crushing victory over the Hunni. Based on the shores of the Mare Caspium (Caspian Sea), Ban Chao sent out an envoy, Gan Ying, to make contact with the empire known to them as Da Qing; the Roman Empire. Gan eventually reached the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea). He then decided to board a ship to reach his destination and was almost dissuaded by a local sailor who told him exaggerated stories of the dangers of the voyage. However, Gan was a man of duty and decided to continue on, though he went by land. He journeyed through Armenia, into Roman Anatolia, and on to Italia.

Gan Ying eventually reached the Eternal City in the year AD 99. He and his entourage created quite a stir in Rome. Rome impressed them equally, with its tall buildings, gardens, and gigantic public works. Gan Ying would tell stories of Han Serica, to the delight of his Roman hosts. It was soon realized that both empires would have much to offer each other. In fact, in a letter written by Gan to Ban Chao stated that Rome and Serica were "but opposite sides of the same coin".

Gan would eventually return home in AD 103, leaving some of his entourage behind, and taking some Roman envoys along. Over the course of Aurelius' reign, diplomatic missions would be sent back and forth, strengthening relations between the Han and Roman Empires, to the growing concern of the Parthians, who did not wish to be surrounded by an alliance of the two most powerful nations in the world.

Aurelius died a peaceful death in AD 115, after a peaceful and prosperous reign that gave Rome time to breathe after its many conquests to the north, and was succeeded by his adopted son Tiberius Quintus Cosmus, a popular politician. Though Aurelius was a firm supporter in the republic and actively made reforms to expand the power of the Senate (largely by making many Imperial provinces into Senatorial provinces), the military (and, to a lesser degree, the Roman people) wanted an emperor, and Aurelius had to adopt Cosmus, renaming the future emperor Decimus Viridius Aurelius Cosmianus.

Decimus Viridius Aurelius Cosmianus' principate lasted from AD 115 to AD 134. The majority of his reign would be consumed by the war with Parthia, lasting from AD 118 to AD 132.

The war came about for a variety of reasons, the most important of which were the Parthian's fear of losing control over the trade routes between Rome and Serica, and a dispute over the succession of the Armenian throne. As the Han and Roman Empires worked out various trade treaties, they began to look for ways to circumvent the Parthians, who had grown rich simply by being in between the two Empires. Cosmianus had been sending out exploratory fleets around Africa and Arabia, in the hopes of replacing the land route through Parthia with a sea route. He even considered sending ships west, and reach Serica that way, but that plan was eventually deemed unfeasible. Still, it was only a matter of time before the Parthians lost complete control of the silk trade. So Parthia wanted to ensure its safety from Rome, and Rome (and to a slightly lesser degree, the Han) wanted to eliminate Parthia from the silk trade.

Then, in Armenia, disaster struck. Armenia was the main buffer state between Rome and Parthia, sometimes siding with one, sometimes the other. In the year 116, the Armenian king Arsaces I died without an heir. The nation was under the influence of Parthia at the time, so a Parthian candidate,Tiridates, who happened to the nephew of the Parthian King, Osroes. This was an intolerable situation for Rome, as it could lead to Armenia becoming integrated into the Parthian Empire. In AD 118, the Roman Empire thus went to war with the Parthians, and the fate of the world changed forever.

The Roman plan was to launch a two pronged attack into Parthian territory, one army attacking to the north, and the second army attacking to the south. The northern army, under the command of Quintus Domitius Nepos, was to secure Armenia, then march eastward through Media, towards the Parthian homeland. The southern army, under the command of Gaius Barrius Avitus, was to hold the border until the northern army had most of the Parthian military after it, at which point they would invade Mesopotamia and head along the Persian coast, securing the prosperous Parthian subkingdoms of Elymais and Persis. The Parthian strategy was to take Judea and Egypt, thus preventing Rome from trading with the Han by sea. Losing Armenia would be an acceptable setback, if it came to that.

[to have an idea of what's going on, you might want to check out these pages.

http://americanhistory.si.edu/csr/nnc/parthia/frames/imapki.htm

http://members.aol.com/ahreemanx/images/map%20parthian%20empire.jpg]

In the first year, Nepos marched uncontested into Armenia, where his and his legions were relatively well received. He then continued into the subkingdom of Atropatene in Media. There, he face some stiff resistance. Meanwhile, the Parthians marched into Judea, meeting the determined Jewish forces first at Tyre, where they managed to force the Jews back. The Parthian army pursued them, leaving part of their forces behind to lay siege to Tyre. The two armies clashed again at Caesarea, where the Parthians won a narrow victory again. However, as they lay siege to the city, the Jewish forces regrouped and attacked. The two sides would fall into stalemate for a time, though the Parthians outnumbered the Jewish army and would eventually win.

However, at that time, Avitus' legions began to march south, to meet the Parthians, who had split again, one group marching towards Eqypt, while the other went for Jerusalem, in order to secure a Jewish surrender. This allowed Avitus to meet up with the Jewish army (which was still in good order after Caesarea) and defeat the Parthians outside of Jersulam in the summer of AD 119. Avitus then turned north to Mesopotamia and laid siege to Arbela, the capital of the subkingdom of Adiabene, near the beginning of AD 120. The Jewish forces consolidated their positions and bled a large portion of the other Parthian group as it marched back to meet Avitus.

Arbela fell to the Romans just days before the Parthians reached the city. Neither side could gain a significant advantage and the situation turned into a stalemate. The situation was the same to the north, where Nepos' legions had made little progress. The war would continue in this way for until the fall of 123, with the Romans making gradual headway into Parthian territory, but having a hard time of it.

In that year, the impressive citadel of Hatra, to the southwest of Arbela, fell to Avitus' forces, and Nepos finished off the conquest of Atropatene. Meanwhile, back in Rome, Cosmianus was beginning to consider ending the campaign, after seeing how costly the early phase of the war was. However, before he could decide on this course of action, news came from Han messengers.

The Han had been eying the subkingdom of Saka (who's king was also a member of the Parthian Suren family), on the very eastern edge of the Parthian empire, hoping to collect tribute from them. The king of Saka, Gotarzes, seeing that the majority of the Parthian army was tied up in the east, decided to revolt and, hopefully, expand his kingdom (and, if things went very well, become the king of Parthia himself). He sent envoys to the Han saying that he would accept the Han Emperor as suzerain, if they would sent assistance to him. His offer was accepted and, in September of AD 123, a new front was opened in the Parthian war. When Cosmianus heard of this, his hope for the war was restored, and he ordered his commanders to renew the offensive.

As some of the Parthian forces withdrew to attack the Saka, Avitus managed to break through and march down the Tigris-Euphrates, reaching the city of Seleucia by January. Seleucia was a predominately Greek city which was dissatisfied with the Parthians and, therfore, welcomed Avitus. However, Ctesiphon, a major Parthian city which lay just across the Tigris, was not as welcoming and his forces were tied down for some time assaulting the city. Meanwhile, Nepos, who now had to deal with the majority of the western Parthian forces (who were worried about the northern Roman force linking up with the Saka) had won a string of small victories and was assaulting Rhagae.

When Ctesiphon fell, Avitus sent out envoys to the Subkingdoms of Elymais, Characene, and Persis, proposing that they become client states allied to Rome. Only Persis refused, though Characene only accepted to avoid being invaded by the much larger Elymais. Avitus then marched towards Susa and lay siege to the city. Nepos, meanwhile, found himself again in a stalemate, facing the Parthian armies outside of the Caspian gates.

Meanwhile, to the east, the Parthians were battlying the Saka outside of Asaak, to the northeast of Hecatompylos, the Parthian capital. The Parthians pushed back the Saka offensive and persued them through Nisa, Dara, and Merv. By AD 125, the Saka city of Bactra was under seige and Persian forces were attacking the south, hoping to gain territory from the rebellious subkingdom.

Despite all of these losses, the Parthians were holding their own valiantly well against increasingly bad odds. Though they only had one major subkingdom still loyal to the Parthian king, they held their own, inflicting significant losses on the Romans. Granted, most of the battles against the Romans were losses for the Parthians, but in the majority, the Roman forces suffered more casualties. In the east, the Parthians were slowly grinding away at the Saka, while they had all but completely halted the Roman forces.

Susa would not fall until 126 and Avitus would then attack Tabae, which would hold out until 128. Nepos had not gained any ground, though he inflicted more losses on the Parthians. Meanwhile, the Saka had lost Bactra and were on their last legs, even though the Han were pouring more and more support into them, and were being squeezed between the Parthians in the north and the Persians to the south. The Parthians had finally found a commander that could lead them to victory, General Sanabares, and they were optimistic that the course of the war would soon turn.

The war did turn, though it was not to turn in the Parthian's favor. An epidemic suddenly swept through the Parthian's horses, devastating the predominately calvary armies. This disaster enabled Nepos to break through the Caspian Gates and march towards Hecatompylos. Meanwhile, the Saka began to push the Parthians out of their territory, not a difficult task, considering the Parthians were rushing to defend Hecatompylos. To the southeast, Avitus was marching on Persepolis, causing the Persian armies (which were not as dependent on calvary) to also vacate Saka territory.

The year 129 would see both Persepolis and Hecatompylos under seige and the Saka expanding along all of their borders, taking Merv and Dara to the north, and pushing back the Persians to the straits of Hormuz. Sanabares reached Hecatompylos in late 129 and attacked the Romans, forcing them to abandon the siege. Sanabares began to push Nepos' legions back and would have crushed the Romans. However, while retreating, Nepos split his forces into 3 groups. The main group would continue to retreat, while the other two groups would split off to the north and south and would circle around the Parthians.

Sanabares, seeing the size of Nepos' main force, thought that the Romans must have suffered serious casualties and his army surged forward, allowing the two other groups to slip behind them and attack them just as the Parthians began to attack Nepos. Sanabares, realizing that he had been tricked, turned his troops around and charged at the rear attackers. The Parthians managed to break through and head back to Hecatompylos.

To the south, the Persians had managed to push back the Saka to their former borders again, while trying to lift the siege of Persepolis. Persepolis would ultimately fall in 130, allowing Avitus to attack the Persian forces, which, in turn, allowed the Saka to force the Persians back again, crushing the last Persian resistance by late 130.

Meanwhile, Nepos and Sanabares were going back and forth at each other. Nepos would besiege Hecatompylos, Sanabares would attack and break up the Roman forces, which would regroup and drive the Parthians off and besiege the city again, at which point the Parthians would regroup and attack. Avitus sent up half of his forces to assist Nepos, allowing him to hold the siege while attacking the Parthians. It would take until the summer of AD 132 before the city fell, at which point Osroes commited suicide, rather than be captured by the Romans. Upon hearing this, Sanabares met Nepos and surrendered his forces to the mercy of the Roman Empire. The Parthian War was over.

Armenia would become a client kingdom of Rome, as would the neutral Osroene, and the former subkingdoms of Characene and Elymais. The Tigris-Euphrates region would be divided up into the the provinces of Adiabene, just east of Osroene, then Assyria to the south, and then Mesopotamia, further to the south, bordering Characene and Elymais. To the east of Adiabene was the province of Media Inferior. East of that was Media Superior. South of Media Superior and north of Elymais was the province of Susiana. East of Elymais and Susiana lay Persia Superior, and then Persia Inferior, both along the Persian Gulf. East of Media Superior, along the Caspian coast was Hypercania. After that lay Parthia Superior and then Parthia Inferior to the south. South of Parthia Inferior and north of Persia Inferior lay the province of Carmania. East of Parthia Superior was Margiana, with Aria to the south of that. The rest of Parthian territory was now the the Regnum Sakae (kingdom of Saka). Saka was bound by treaty to pay tribute to the Han, as well as promising not to interfere in anyway with trade between its neighbors.

Avitus and Nepos would return to Rome as heros and participated in the greatest triumph Rome had ever seen. In recognition of their achievements, the Senate gave Nepos and Avitus the titles of Parthicus and Persicus, respectively. Cosmianus now had to choose one of the generals as his successor or he would certainly face the wrath of the army. He decided to choose Avitus, as Nepos was too hotheaded and blatantly ambitious, while Avitus was methodical and softspoken, and well liked by the Senate. Cosmianus would rule Rome for another 2 years and then die of old age, leaving the principate to Decimus Viridius Aurelius Avitianus Persicus.

Persicus would rule Rome between AD 132 and AD 138. He was a moderate man, though somewhat of an idealist. His reign was most noted for vast public works projects and trade expeditions.

Persicus' building projects in the city of Rome were so grand that the city of Rome was almost unrecognizable to many. When a fire broke out shortly after the beginning of his reign, he responded by rebuilding the area in a more orderly (grid) fashion and instituting stricter building codes to lessen the chance of such infernos. He also had several of the poorer sections renovated in the same way, with wider streets and public gardens. He bolstered the defenses of the city and built several public buildings, such as the Avitian Baths, Avitian Forum, and Avitian Theater.

Persicus also built such projects across the empire, though mainly in the less populated west. He established an unprecedented number of colonies, to increase the population of the European provinces, to balance out the Asian provinces larger populations. He had several new roads built, greatly increasing the overall level of commerce.

Though Persicus was tired of war and did not wish to extend the empire's borders anymore, he did expand the empire's influence. He sent out expeditions to create trading posts in various regions beyond the empire. Several posts were established along the coasts of eastern Africa and Arabia, as well as western Africa and the Prosperian Islands (Canary). Roman ships continued to carry out expeditions along the coasts, though they did not achieve Persicus' dream of circumnavigating the continent. Under his reign, the Nabatene became a client state of Rome.

In the north, the Sciri, and Aestii, and Gothones had been united into one kingdom, the Regnum Gothonia, under the charismatic chieften, Atreu. Persicus forged a defensive alliance with the young kingdom, mainly to avoid the hassle of having to go to war.

Persicus' death in AD 138 was most likely due to poisoning. His death was mourned by almost the entire empire, and his reign was marked by peace and prosperity. Around the time of his death, Parthicus happened to be visiting family in Rome, after being the governor of Mesopotamia. He also happened to have connected with the legions who had been under his command in the war, who were stationed in Africa at the time. While the Senate was debating what to do about the death of Persicus, Parthicus issued an ultimatum. Either the Senate would peacefully name him emperor, or his legions, which were now in Italy, would march into the city and he would forcefully become emperor. The Senate conceded, and Parthicus become the new Emperor of Rome.

Parthicus ruled the Roman Empire from AD 138 to AD 142. Though a brutal leader, he was also a capable administrator, who managed the empire quite well.

When Parthicus assumed power, the population of the city of Rome was around 1.5 million people. Through forced emigration, he brought the population down to 1 million, settling many of the displaced people in the European provinces, some of which were beginning to be as populated as the eastern provinces.

He also enfranchised many people in the Empire, giving them Roman citizenship, if they could speak Latin fluently and pay a fee. This action upset many in the Senate, who saw it as selling Roman citizenship. When they protested, Parthicus have many of them killed to silence their opposition.

However, Parthicus did continue many of Persicus' policies regarding the provinces and sent out trading expeditions of his own. He also had the legions start using wheelbarrows, an invention brought over by the Han, in their construction projects. During his reign, indian numerals began to see use in the eastern provinces. These numerals were much easier to use than the Roman numerals and became very popular, at least in the east.

Late in his reign, Parthicus decided that the best way to salvage his failing popularity was to start a military campaign. To him, the best option was to campaign against the Venedae, the historic enemies of the empire's new Gothonian allies. However, this idea was very unpopular. The senate saw no need to waste Roman lives for that region, the merchants didn't want trade disrupted, the people of Rome were sick of the emperor's lack of interest with the city, and the Gothonians didn't want to risk getting invaded.

Parthicus was assassinated by the Praetorian Guard, who were prompted by Senator Quintus Trebatius Armenius, who had, ironically enough, been elevated to his position by Parthicus himself. Armenius, popular with both the Senate and the Praetorian Guard, became the next emperor.

Quintus Trebatius Armenius was emperor from AD 142 to AD 156. His reign would see much unrest and rebellion in the empire, though he managed to keep things together.

Early on, in late 142, he faced a rebellion in the eastern provinces, specifically Media Superior and Susiana. He went with the legions to quell the rebellion, conducting the effort from Seleucia Magna (formed when the Ctesiphon was incorporated into Seleucia). The revolt was crushed in 144, just as another was forming in Persia Inferior, Carmania, and Parthia Inferior. Armenius moved his base of operations to Persepolis and went about attacking the rebels. In 145, Persia Inferior fell to the Imperial forces while Aria fell to the rebels. The other rebellious provinces would capitulate in AD 148.

Just as Armenius returned to Rome in AD 149, word came of yet another rebellion in the east, this time in the client state of Elymais, which had just undergone a revolution and refused to pay tribute to Rome. Armenius would go to lead the legions against the rebels, defeating them in AD 152, and incorporating Elymais as a province.

For the next 2 years, Armenius would spend his time in Persepolis and Seleucia Magna. He would then return to Rome, where he would continue out the rest of his reign to his death in AD 156. His adopted son and successor was a general named Gaius Oranius Lysippus, who, upon his adoption became Quintus Trebatius Armenius Lysippianus.

Armenius was a exceptionally able ruler who managed both to keep the city of Rome happy (even though he spent less than half of his reign in the city) and to keep the provinces in line, though it was beginning to prove difficult. His successors would not prove to be as able.

Lysippianus reigned from AD 156 to AD 159. While he was emperor, Roman galleys would finally circumnavigate Africa, and the east would again rebel.

Ever since Persicus was emperor, there had been sporadic Roman expeditions along the African coasts. It was only in AD 156 that they finally managed to sail around the entire continent, which was much much larger than anyone had thought. However, most of the continent was either unsuitable for habitation or too far away to be worth the effort, so the Roman presence was restricted to coastal outposts. Still, the Romans had significant influence in the region, due to their dominance of trade.

Meanwhile, there was sporadic unrest in the east, requiring Lysippianus to conduct his reign from Persepolis for most of it. He skillfully commanded the legions and seemed to be able to crush revolts before they even started. Yet, the seeds of his downfall were sown in Rome, as his spent very little time, money, or attention on the Eternal city, while spending much on Persepolis.

Lysippianus eventually crushed the last of the revolts and returned to Rome in AD 159. He expected to be greeted as a hero, but instead faced an unruly and rebellious city. Within days of returning, he was found dead, murdered in his sleep. The emperor chosen by the Senate to replace him was Senator Marcus Claudius Malchus. However, Malchus was unpopular with the much of the army, who supported Titus Secundius Silvanus.

Malchus and the Senate refused the Legions' demands and civil war soon broke out. Malchus generally had the support of the legions in Europe, while Silvanus had the support of the eastern legions.

The civil war would be a short affair, though the year 160 was pretty much a stalemate. Malchus would win the battles of Byzantium and Ephesus, while Silvanus would claim victory at Antioch and Miletus. 161 saw Malchus winning at Apulum. Just when it looked as though Malchus would win, the Gothonians threw their support behind Silvanus (who promised them land in various provinces). At the battle of Aquilea, Malchus was defeated by the combined forces of Silvanus and Atreus II. Malchus then commited suicide, leaving to become the next Emperor of Rome.

Titus Secundius Silvanus would rule Rome from AD 161 to AD 170. He was a brutally effective emperor who crushed those who opposed him and ruled the Empire with an Iron fist.

The least unpleasant aspect of his rule was the handling of the Gothonian allies. Silvanus was no fool and knew that there could be trouble if there were mass Gothonian settlements inside the Empire's borders. So, he offered them land, but only in relatively small plots, capable of supporting a few families. These plots were spread out across Europe, though most were east of the Albis. Atreus II and the other Gothonians weren't quite pleased with this, and Silvanus sent engineers to Gothonia to help the Gothonians build up their state, which placated Atreus. All in all, about 1/3 of the Gothonian people settled in the Roman Empire.

In the east, Silvanus faced the usual unrest, which had been simmering during the civil war. He spent much of his reign crushing the revolts and making examples of the rebels. Any rebellious city was totally depopulated upon capture. The population would be dispersed across the Empire. In most cases, families were broken up and settled vast distances away from each other. For some cities that did not resist too much, Silvanus showed a degree of mercy and allowed families to stay together. For the cities that resisted fiercely, anyone who wasn't crucified upon the capture was enslaved. Records indicated that populations of Anatolia and Achaea (where the majority of the rebellions occured) decreased by almost 20% during Silvanus' reign.

However, in the city of Rome itself, Silvanus was well liked and respected. Even the Senate that opposed his ascension thought well of him. However, Silvanus would ultimately die, fighting rebels in Adiabene. His death would plunge Rome into its second civil war in a decade.

On one side was Gaius Cornelius Homullus, who was popular with the Senate and the central regions of the Empire, such as Italy, Greece, Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt. Opposing him was Secundus Amaticus Darius, who was popular with the eastern areas, such as Persia (his birthplace) and Mesopotamia, as well as in Gaul and Britannia. This civil war would drag out for much longer than the previous war, as neither side could gain an advantage over the other.

AD 170 would see Homullus winning at the battle of Lutetia. In 171, Darius would claim victory at Mediolanum, while Homullus would win at Lugdunum and Sirmium. During 172, Darius would win pyrrhic victories at Thessalonica, Ancryra,and Palmrya.

In that same year, the Parthian provinces would rebel, creating a pocket empire out of Parthia Superior and Inferior, Margiana, and Aria. Meanwhile, the Venedae began to raid into Carpia, Costobocia, and Roxolania. Both Darius and Homullus were too focused on defeating each other to give any time to either of these threats.

173 would see no major battles, except for a naval engagement at Alexandria, which both sides claimed as a victory (Darius destroyed almost all of Homullus' navy, but was prevented from making a landing and was turned away). The Parthians were sending diplomatic feelers to see if they could profit from allying with either general, though this lead to nothing. The Venedae continued to raid unchallenged into Roman territory, until the Gothonians stepped in.

Seeing an opportunity to expand, Atreus II attacked the Venedae, forcing them on the defensive. Though the incursions into Roman territory would continue into 174, this gave the neutral Roman garrisons time to recover and put up some semblance of defense.

The civil war would continue on through 175, with engagements at Cyrene, Seleucia Magna, Ecbatana, and Carthago. The Gothonians continued to press the Venedae and had already defeated most of the northern tribes.

The war finally ended in AD 176 when Homullus died of malaria. His forces, who were weary of the fighting, surrendered to Darius soon after, leaving him to become Emperor.

Secundus Amaticus Darius was emperor from AD 176 to AD 187. He would re-conquer Parthia, while restoring some stability to the Empire and expanding Roman influence.

As soon as he was proclaimed emperor, Darius quickly moved to crush the Parthian revolt. His campaign was well executed, and Hecatompylos fell in AD 181. With it fell the last of the resistance. As an example of what happened to those who opposed Roman rule (and as an example of what happened when you named your capital something annoying to type), Darius had Hecatompylos razed and the ground sowed with salt. Many of the rebellious Parthians were crucified, while the lucky ones were sold into slavery. Those that didn't openly revolt were dispersed throughout the Empire. According to the records, the rebellious provinces lost about 70-80% of their population. Darius then repopulated the region with settlers primarily from Italia, Hispania, and Gaul (the most Romanized reigions of the Empire). Not surprisingly, there weren't many revolts for the rest of Darius' reign.

Darius then returned to Persepolis to govern the Empire. He decided not to govern from Rome mainly because Persepolis was much closer to the hot spots of the Empire that needed his attention, though the fact that his was born there likely played a factor in his decision. He still had many public works built in Rome and spent lavishly on the Eternal City. Still, he did do much to glorify Persepolis as well, building the Forum of Darius and the Amatican Amphitheater.

Meanwhile, the Gothonians had defeated the Venedae in a great battle, forcing the Venedae chieftens to pay tribute to Atreus II. Atreus then demanded that the Romans provide some sort of payment to the Gothonians, for defending the Empire while it was weak. Darius, who felt honor bound to do so (and didn't really want to have to deal with a hostile Gothonian kingdom), agreed. He allowed more Gothonians to settle in the Empire (most of whom settled in Lemovia and Burgundia) and married his daughter to Atreus' grandson.

Darius put new emphasis on the colonial trading posts, many of which had been abandoned during the civil wars. However, Darius' greatest project was the Canalis Aegyptum (Egyptian Canal), begun in AD 184. It would cross the Sinai, connecting the Mare Internum (Mediterranean Sea) and the Mare Rostrum (Red Sea). The Canal was definitely the grandest of Darius' projects, and possibly the greatest feat of Roman engineering to this time, though it would be delayed several times over the period of its construction.

Unfortunately, Darius died in a riding accident in the spring of AD 187, leaving the Empire to his son, Marcus Amaticus Darius. He left the Empire much more stable and secure than he found it and was remembered fondly by the Roman people.

Marcus Amaticus Darius was the Roman Emperor from AD 187 to AD 193. His early reign would be marked mainly by military campaigns, while the rest of his reign was noted for corruption and decadence.

Soon after ascending to the throne, Marcus Amaticus had to deal with the Alani who were raiding into the Caucasian states of Colchis and Iberia, both Roman client states. He made short work of the Alani, crushing them by AD 188. He then moved against the Hunni to the north and defeated them in several battles. Having dramatically weakened the two most troublesome tribes in the area, Marcus Amaticus returned to Persepolis in AD 190.

Seeking to ingratiate himself with the populace, he built several public works in the city, much more so than his father, who had focused most of his projects on Rome. Marcus, however, almost completely ignored the city of Rome. He also stopped construction on the Canalis Aegyptum. Most of the money saved by these actions went to his grand palace, the Domus Aureum (Golden House), which further angered the people of Rome.

Still, he was popular in the East, and none dared to challenge him as, despite his extravagance, Marcus was one of the most skilled generals Rome had ever seen (in every battle against the Alani and Hunni, he was outnumbered by a significant margin, and he only lost one battle). However, the Senate did have enough confidence to request that he at least continue construction on the Canal and that he use some of the Imperial funds to help repair Rome after a recent fire.

Marcus Amaticus then went to assess the situation in Rome. He received a relatively cold reception from the populace, though the Senate, eager to have their agenda addressed, did welcome him graciously. Marcus, however, annoyed with having to go to Rome in the first place, was not pleased in the least. He rounded up several upper class women, many wives or daughters of Senators, and returned to Persepolis. Upon his return, he opened up a brothel, staffed by the kidnapped women.

The people would take no more. In the winter of 193, Marcus Amaticus' brother, Titus Amaticus Darius, and his sister, Amatica Daria (with whom Marcus is supposed to have had an incestuous relationship) assassinated Marcus. Titus would now become the next emperor.

Titus Amaticus Darius reigned from AD 193 until AD 203. While he was a capable politician and administrator, he was nowhere near the general his brother was. Unfortunately, Titus also had to deal with many more military problems than Marcus had.

In Mauretania, the Gaetuli tribes were launching major raids into Roman territory. The Navari and Bastarnae were also raiding Roxolania and Costobocia. In the Caucasus, the Aorsi tribe was causing trouble, now that the Alani were out of the way. Most troublesome was that, in the east, the Kushan Empire was attacking Rome's Saka ally, the vital link between the Roman and Han empires.

Titus decided to delegate the problem of handling the barbarians to his brother's most trusted commander, Quintus Flavius Severus, while focusing his efforts on defending the Saka.

Severus first focused on the Navari and Bastarnae, defeating them by AD 194. He then went after the Aorsi, who were crushed in 196. The Gaetuli would submit in 199, though the Navari were attacking Roxolania again, forcing Severus to battle them again, achieving victory in AD 202.

Titus' campaign in the Saka Kingdom was long and drawn out, as he crisscrossed the state in a game of cat and mouse with the Kushan armies. Eventually, in the climactic battle of Maracanda in AD 197, Titus defeated the Kushans, forcing them to abandon their conquest of the Saka.

Titus didn't devote his reign solely to military matters, however. He restarted construction on the Canalis Aegyptum in AD 194, finishing it in AD 200. The canal opened with great celebration and fanfare, as ships from various parts of the world paraded through it. Titus also spent considerable effort on Rome, restoring the ailing Claudian Amphitheater and expanding the port at Ostia. Still, he prefered to govern from Persepolis.

The rest of Titus' reign would be mostly uneventful and peaceful (though Severus was busy battling barbarians) and he would die in his sleep in AD 203. His appointed successor was Appius Claudius Vincentius, a prominent and respected politician. However, Severus, who felt that Vincentius was not up to the task of defending the empire, had other plans.

Quintus Flavius Severus, upon hearing that Vincentius had ascended the throne, addressed the Senate, saying that it was time that Rome was again ruled by true Romans, not Persians with Roman names. With the support of the Senate, Severus assembled an army and was preparing to march east when Vincentius himself arrived in Rome. Vincentius proposed an alternative to a bloody civil war. Vincentius would rule the eastern parts of the Empire while Severus would rule the western parts.

Severus agreed to discuss the idea and the two went to work at dividing the Empire. The Western Roman Empire would consist of Europe and Africa, while the Eastern Roman Empire would control the Asian provinces. The only land border would be the Canalis Aegyptum, with the Western Empire reserving the right to collect northbound tolls, and the Eastern Empire collecting southbound tolls. The various islands would be go to whichever Empire they were closer to (so Crete would go to the West, while Cyprus would go to the East). The Western Empire would be governed from Rome, the Eastern Empire, from Persepolis. The two empires would also had to pledge a defensive alliance for as long as they stood. The only point of contention was the Vincentius insisted that the Eastern Emperor be first among the two (kinda like the Pope and Patriarch). However, Vincentius was able to convince Severus to agree to this eventually.

The agreement worked out, Vincentius returned to Persepolis to govern his Empire, while Severus began his reign in Rome. All around the empire, the people hailed the agreement, as they were tired of the instability and civil wars of recent years. However, their hopes for peace and quiet, at least in the west, were soon dashed by the upcoming events.

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